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Computer Usage in the Elementary Classroom
Erin E. McCabe
Instructional Technology Competencies
Curriculum 959 Sec 001 SPRING 2002
University of Nebraska-Lincoln

This paper focuses on the current usage of computers in elementary classrooms and the problems associated with computer usage in the elementary classroom. The paper includes information on how to make educators computer literate and integrate computers into the elementary curriculum. Although the intent of this paper is to have this computer integration in the elementary classroom, it will address the concerns of those who feel computers do not belong in the elementary classroom. This paper is supported by research on education and computer integration from the U.S. Department of Education.

--Read and write simple computer programs

--Use educational computer programs and documentation

--Use computer hardware terminology

--Recognize the limits of solving educational problems using the computer

--Locate information on computing in education

--Discuss the historical development of computer technology for education

--Discuss the moral and human impact issues relating to societal and educational use of computers (Taylor and others 1980). (Geisert et al, 1984)
This kind of knowledge is just a very minimal practical knowledge of computers. (Papert, 1993)
This kind of knowledge is still included in today's definition of computer literacy but more skills are needed to be considered computer literate. Teaching computer literacy means teaching students to use the computer and making sure they use it effectively. Effective use of computers is defined as use of a computer system to accomplish well defined goals with less expense than before in terms of time and money. (Bristow, 1997) If using a computer means that it takes more time or money to achieve your goals than the computer is not being used effectively. (Bristow, 1997) In the next section I will discuss the current usage of computers in elementary classrooms.
A computer has many purposes in the classroom today. In a classroom the computer serves as a classroom tool and as a subject of instruction. (Geisert et al, 1984) As a classroom tool, computers are being used for research, word processing, art, and administrative purposes. Students use the Internet and CD-ROM programs for research. (Learning Solutions, 1998) During word processing, elementary school children can use computers as tools to create their own text and to practice writing and reading. (ERIC, 1983)
Word processing programs encourage children to experiment with language as well as to record their own writing. (ERIC, 1983) For art, the computer can be used to draw pictures or designs. (ERIC, 1983) Children can learn to create their own designs and pictures. (ERIC, 1983) Children gain an increased understanding of design, composition, and use of color when using computers for art. (ERIC, 1983) "Although not part of children's direct involvement with computers, administrative uses of computers free educators from routine record keeping to spend more time in instructional activities and at the same time help them to develop computer literacy." (ERIC, 1983) Computers in schools are frequently used for accounting, reports, word processing, attendance or personnel records, and budget preparation or management. (ERIC, 1983)
As a subject of instruction, computers are used to teach the students. Computer assisted instruction (CAI) is when the computer is used as a tutor and concepts, information, or skills normally presented through conventional teaching methods are taught by the computer. (ERIC, 1983) Text based applications including drill and practice applications are forms of computer assisted instruction. (ERIC, 1983) Computer programming is also being taught to elementary students. (ERIC, 1983) Computer programming helps to promote computer literacy and prepare children for a computer-oriented future. (ERIC, 1983) Computer programming requires students to analyze tasks, pose alternative solutions to problems, understand how to sequence instructions, and use logic. (ERIC, 1983) These examples are just a few ways that computers are being used to supplement instruction. In the next section, I will look at how using computers to supplement instruction benefits elementary children and how computers can benefit teachers.
The benefits to children depend upon the kind of computer experiences they have and the access they have to computers. (ERIC, 1983) Standardized tests however do not show the benefit of computer usage. (Healy, 1998) Standardized tests measure only a limited span of skills, broader measures are needed. (Healy, 1998) Computers can help improve motor skills, enhance mathematical thinking, increase creativity, improve scores on tests of critical thinking and problem solving, and increase scores on standardized language assessments. (Haugland, 2000) Computers enhance children's self-concept, and increase levels of spoken communication and cooperation. (Haugland, 2000) Computers also enhance collaborative learning, alternative assessment, and individualized learning. (NSBA, 2002) Computers are also beneficial in helping to meet the learning needs of all students. Howard Gardner has stated that humans have seven or more multiple intelligences: Verbal/Linguistic, Logical/Mathematical, Visual/Spatial, Musical, Interpersonal, and Intrapersonal. (NSBA, 2002) Multimedia can be used to address these intelligences. (NSBA, 2002) Verbal/Linguistic intelligence, the ability to think, communicate, and create through words both in speech and in writing can be aided by computer software that allows students to write and illustrate their own stories. (NSBA, 2002) Word processing software also stimulates learners to interact more closely with their work. (NSBA, 2002) Verbal/Linguistic intelligence is also benefited by telecommunications programs that allow students to communicate with other students in writing. (NSBA, 2002) Logical/mathematical intelligence, the ability to memorize and perform mathematical operations, think mathematically, logically, and analytically and to apply that understanding to problem solving can be benefited by multimedia products that graphically illustrate physics concepts. (NSBA, 2002) It is also benefited by programs that provide challenging visual/spatial tasks which develop mathematical and logical thinking. (NSBA, 2002)
Visual/spatial intelligence, the ability to understand the world through what we see and imagine and to express ideas through graphic arts can be benefited by paint programs, databases of artwork, desktop publishing, and Internet sites to museums and virtual tours. (NSBA, 2002) Bodily/kinesthetic intelligence, the ability to learn through physical coordination and dexterity and the ability to express oneself through physical activities can be benefited by educational games which challenge fine motor coordination while helping to develop logical thinking skills. (NSBA, 2002) It can also be benefited by electronic field trips that allow the students to interact electronically with a scientist. (NSBA, 2002) Musical intelligence, the ability to understand, appreciate, perform, and create music by voice, instruments or dance can be benefited by Musical Instrument Digital Interface which makes it possible to make music on an electronic keyboard, that can be made to sound like any instrument. (NSBA, 2002) It is also benefited by interactive presentations of renowned classical music. (NSBA, 2002) Interpersonal intelligence, the ability to work cooperatively with other people and to apply a variety of skills to communicate with and understand others can be benefited by cooperative learning activities. (NSBA, 2002) It can also be benefited by electronic networks that link the students with people around the world. (NSBA, 2002) Intrapersonal intelligence the ability to understand, bring to consciousness, and express one's own inner world of thoughts and emotions can be benefited by multimedia that turns the classroom into centers of student-directed inquiry. (NSBA, 2002) It can also be benefited by technology that supports electronic records and multimedia portfolios of student work. (NSBA, 2002) Computers also allow students to work in visual-spatial intelligence rather than the traditional visual-analytic intelligence. (Healy, 1998)
Image processing allows these students to release their creativity by working through visual and kinesthetic rather than verbal intelligence. (Healy, 1998) A student who has the chance to work through visual and kinesthetic channels may do better in the new technology fields than those limited to linguistic and linear forms of reasoning. (Healy, 1998) Computers are also beneficial to students with learning disabilities. Assistive or remedial technology harnesses the power of computers to help students with learning differences. (Healy, 1998) "Children with cerebral palsy can move a cursor on a computer screen by moving their eyes, the computer measures movements with small electrodes placed near the eyes." (Healy, 1998) Tutorials help those with language impairments and spell-checkers have already benefited poor spellers and nonfluent writers. (Healy, 1998) Computers can also be used in many other ways to help those with physical and mental impairments. For education professionals, computers allow networking which creates a professional bond between teachers and administrators and ends isolation. (NSBA, 2002) If we move beyond test scores we see that computers can be beneficial to children and to teachers in the classroom if used effectively. Teachers just need to teach students how to use them effectively which means teaching computer literacy.
Computer literacy today involves mastering a set of core competencies. (Stoll, 1999) It does not mean that a student has to know everything about the computer but they should know some basics. Some of these basics include being able to use a word processor, manipulate a spreadsheet, know what a database does, be able to use e-mail, and know how to browse the World Wide Web. (Stoll, 1999) Browsing the World Wide Web involves being able to make an informed judgment about what you find on-line. The basics also include being able to describe computer hardware and software functions and perform basic computer operations like using the keyboard and mouse, turning the computer on and off, opening computer applications, minimizing and closing windows, and managing files and folders. (Dover, 2002) Once they have mastered the basics, students should learn how to use the computer to conduct library and Internet research, to create and edit reports and presentations, and to communicate with others. (Dover, 2002) If children are computer literate, integration of computers into the elementary classroom becomes easier. In the next section I will look at the instructor's role in a computer integrated classroom.
A teacher in a computer-integrated classroom has four roles: Instructor, Coach, Model, and Critic. (Davis et al, 1994) As Instructor the teacher guides the children through new software and encourages exploration of the material. (Davis et al, 1994) The teacher is the Instructor when children are becoming familiar with the technology. (Davis et al, 1994) The teacher moves into the role of coach as the students gain more experience. (Davis et al, 1994) As Coach the teacher provides guidance and support and ensures appropriate behavior. (Davis et al, 1994) The teacher acts as Model and Critic during both periods. (Davis et al, 1994) The teacher is the Model by showing the students that they use computers for learning. (Davis et al, 1994) Students will be more likely to use the computer if they see the teacher using it. (Davis et al, 1994) Teachers are the critic by selecting software that enhances their student's development and learning. (Davis et al, 1994) These examples are roles that a teacher must take on if they are going to have a computer integrated classroom. However, these are roles that some teachers are not always willing to accept and these are roles that some adults do not think teachers should accept. I believe that computers should be used in elementary classrooms and that elementary students should be taught to use computers but there are others who feel that computers do not belong in an elementary classrooms and have concerns about teaching children to use computers. In the following sections, I will present some of the concerns adults have about having computers in elementary classroom.
One concern adults have about having computers in the elementary classroom is the Internet. The Internet poses new challenges for parents because children can interact with anyone online from the home, school or library and any user, anywhere, can post any information, including materials that are inaccurate, misleading and inappropriate for children. (Kehoe, et al, 1997) Many adults are concerned about some of dangers found on the Internet. Adults are concerned about children being lured away by predators that they have chatted with online. (Kehoe et al, 1997) They worry about their children having access to pornographic materials as well as materials from hate groups and cults. (Kehoe et al, 1997) Adults worry that computers are becoming an open door to their worst nightmares. (Kehoe et al, 1997) Adults are also concerned about the security of their computer system. Viruses, worms, and Trojan horses can all be damaging to a computers' system and some of these can be delivered by using the Internet.
Another reason adults have concerns about having computers in elementary classrooms is that they feel that current computer teachings are not meeting educational standards. Teachers, parents, administrators, and lawmakers are all looking for accountability. (Healy, 1998) School accountability is a dominant theme in education reform today. (Allen, 1994) Accountability means different things to different people, (ranging from 'back to basics' objective testing to equalization of school financing. (Allen, 1994)
"Yet at the core of the accountability movement lies a common concern: the need for agreed-upon, easily understandable, readily adaptable measures of how well our schools are doing, and how student achievement in the U.S. today, from district to district and state to state, compares with foreign competitors and our own historical record." (Allen, 1994) In Education there are five types of accountability: political accountability, legal accountability, bureaucratic accountability, professional accountability, and market accountability. (Darling-Hammond et al, 1989) Political accountability involves evaluating the performance of legislators and school board members. Legal Accountability means making sure schools uphold the law. (Darling-Hammond et al, 1989) Bureaucratic Accountability takes place when district and state education offices produce rules and regulations intended to ensure that schooling takes place according to set standards. (Darling-Hammond et al, 1989) Professional Accountability is when teachers and other school staff must acquire specialized knowledge, pass certification exams, and uphold professional standards of practice. Market Accountability is when parents and students evaluate schools and choose the courses or schools they believe are most appropriate. (Darling-Hammond et al, 1989) The type of accountability that adults are focusing on most today is bureaucratic accountability. The drive for bureaucratic accountability and school standards began nationally in 1989 as a result of the Education Summit, when then-President George Bush met with the nation's governors, developed national education goals, and established the National Educational Goals Panel which reports on the progress toward six national education goals. (Allen, 1994) The Bush administration also helped fund efforts by private organizations to set standards in the core curricular areas. (Allen, 1994) This drive for standards continued with President Clinton who encouraged states to adopt national standards by subject matter, and encouraged the development and use of national standards for workplace skills. (Allen, 1994) Clinton also created the National Education Standards and Improvement Council (NESIC), which would oversee existing efforts to develop content and performance standards by subject area and the Opportunity-to-Learn (OTL) standards which were intended to provide measures of school performance by which the taxpaying public could evaluate the quality of education provided in their community. (Allen, 1994) Besides providing measures of school performance the OTL also helped further the theory that any monetary rewards for schools should be based on achievement and monetary punishment should follow poor performance. (Allen, 1994) This theory is why standards and accountability are such a great concern to schools. They fear that if they do not measure up to public scrutiny they will lose funding. (Allen, 1994) Money is not the only concern of schools. They want to know who will be creating and enforcing the standards, will it be the federal government or the state government, and how the comparisons to determine school performance will be made. (Allen, 1994) Schools want to know if the comparisons will be school to school, classroom to classroom, or district to district and what standards of comparisons are going to be used. (Allen, 1994) They are also concerned about what instrument will be used to measure school accountability. (Darling-Hammond et al, 1989) Traditionally standardized tests are used to evaluate performance but testing does not ensure that schools will teach students well or responsibly, or that students will learn what their parents and the public want them to know. (Darling-Hammond et al, 1989) Standardized testing is also not capable of measuring certain areas. (Darling-Hammond et al, 1989) Computers is one of these areas. It is impossible to assess computer skills using a standardized test. This statement is one argument for not having computers in schools. If the tests don't show that students are benefiting from or learning anything from computers people believe that they shouldn't be in the schools. Another justification to their argument that computers are not meeting educational standards is some of the computer software for children. (Healy, 1998) "Edutainment" is a term meant to describe electronically sugar-coated learning." (Healy, 1998) "It is found most often on CD-ROMS and is mainly produced by entertainment companies, not educators." (Healy, 1998) Besides feeling that computers and their software are not cognitively stimulating, many adults feel that computers and their software are having a negative effect on children, both cognitively and physically. I will address both of these concerns in the next section.
Computers do affect children and the concern that they are negatively affecting children is a large one. (Healy, 1998) The affect of computers on children physically and mentally needs to be addressed. One part of a child's body that is being affected by computers is their eyes. "Visual strain is the number one problem of frequent computer users." (Healy, 1998) "Studies estimate that anywhere from half to 90% of computer users suffer from visual deterioration." Children are also suffering from postural and skeletal problems. (Healy, 1998) One postural problem reported is called "video wrist". (Healy, 1998) It resembles carpal tunnel syndrome and includes numbness, pain, and sometimes tendonitis in the wrists and hands. (Healy, 1998) Physical fitness is also another health concern of adults. (Healy, 1998) In the United States, children are getting less fit. (Healy, 1998) At least one in five children in the United States is overweight. (AOA, 2002) "Approximately 13 percent of children (age 6 to 11) and 14 percent of adolescents (age 12 to 19) are considered overweight, a figure which has doubled in 30 years." (AOA, 2002) Excess weight in childhood and adolescence has been found to predict obesity in adulthood. (AOA, 2002) Children with obesity, age 10 to 13, are reported to have a 70% likelihood of obesity persisting into adult years. (AOA, 2002) The tendency toward obesity is fostered by a lack of physical activity. (AOA, 2002) Besides being a factor in obesity, physical inactivity is a major risk factor for developing coronary artery disease. (AHA, 2002) It also increases the risk of stroke and other major risk factors as high blood pressure, a low level of HDL ("good") cholesterol and diabetes. (AHA, 2002) Children who are inactive are likely to become inactive adults. (AHA, 2002)
The cognitive areas that are affected by computers are attention, motivation, and metacognition. (Healy, 1998) In the area of attention, children need to be able to control the brain's focus, organize a response and stay involved. (Healy, 1998) Many software programs select the focus and organize the responses for the child and then sustain the interest by using lots of stimulus. (Healy, 1998) Motivation is important for long range success. (Healy, 1998) According to the Encarta World English dictionary motivation is the biological, emotional, cognitive, or social forces that activate and direct behavior. (Encarta, 2001) Motivation is needed for a student to be productive and to stay on task even when the task is not an exciting one. (Healy, 1998) Computers reduce motivation because they give students the impression that learning is supposed to be a game with splashy special effects. (Healy, 1998) When the subject matter isn't a game where they blow up things or doesn't have flashing lights to attract their attention, students tend to tune out and give up. Metacognition is knowledge about your own thoughts and the factors that influence your thinking. (Encarta, 2001) During metacognition, people monitor what they are doing, evaluate what they have done, and develop strategies to use in similar situations. (Healy, 1998) People are thinking about thinking. (Blakey et al, 1990) They know what they know and what they don't know. (Blakey et al, 1990) The basic metacognitive strategies are connecting new information to former knowledge, selecting thinking strategies, and planning, monitoring, and evaluating thinking processes. (Blakey et al, 1990) Computer software impairs metacognition because it does not always foster the construction of meaningful mental representations instead it presents material and expects the student to absorb it. (Moreno et als, 2001) Computer software programs also allow students to simply use trial and error to determine an answer and do not make them plan out a strategy to use to determine the answer or evaluate why their answer was wrong. (Blakey et al, 1990) Computer software can also impair metacognition by limiting self-directed learning which takes places during metacognition. (Blakey et al, 1990) Computer software can sometimes be too structured, controlling how long the program runs and only have students typing information in certain boxes or clicking on icons during the activity rather than having the students estimate the time needed to complete a task, organize materials, and schedule procedures necessary to complete the task. (Blakey et al, 1990) Besides worrying about how computers affect children, adults worry about the cost of computers and the cost to make classrooms ready for computer integration. This fear is an issue that I will cover in the next section.
Hardware and the design and shape of school are a concern to adults because they determine how much it is going to cost them to get their schools and classrooms ready for computer integration. If the cost is too high, schools are deterred from integrating computers into their classrooms. "The U.S. General Accounting Office recently estimated that half of the country's schools have wiring too outdated to support Internet." (Healy, 1998) "Few classrooms have telephone lines and wires must be put in wall mounted tubes or through concrete walls." (Healy, 1998) If the schools have asbestos things become even more difficult. (Healy, 1998) Besides having wiring in need of repair the schools themselves are often in need of repair. "Approximately 60 percent of U.S. schools are in need of repair." (Healy, 1998) School designs are a problem because more space is needed for workstations and projects. (Healy, 1998) "Effective deployment of computers in schools takes up to 25% more space than is usually available in traditional classrooms." (Healy, 1998) Hardware and the design and shape of schools can all be a deterrent to computer integration if it costs too much to make them ready for computer integration. In the following sections, I will talk about other deterrents to computer integration.
One deterrent to computer integration in elementary classrooms is the teacher. One reason the teachers are a deterrent to computer integration is that they have not been educated on how to integrate computers into their curriculum. In 1999, the barriers to the use of computer and the Internet for instruction most reported by public school teachers were not enough computers, lack of release time for teachers to learn how to use computers or the Internet, and lack of time in schedule for students to use computers in class. (NCES, 2000) The most common reasons given for the low level of computer use in schools are limited access to equipment and lack of training. (Abdal Haqq, 1995) Both new and veteran teachers feel inadequately prepared to use computers in their classroom. (Abdal Haqq, 1995) "In a survey of recent graduates, the Office of Technology Assessment (1995b) found that while more than half reported being prepared to utilize drill and practice, tutorials, games, word processing, and publishing applications; less than 10% felt competent to use multimedia and presentation packages, electronic network collaboration capabilities, or problem-solving applications." (Abdal Haqq, 1995) One reason teachers are unprepared to deal with the technology is their pre-service teacher education. (Abdal Haqq, 1995) During teacher training educators do not sufficiently model appropriate use of computers for instructional purposes during courses or field experiences. (Abdal, Haqq, 1995) Teacher programs do not incorporate technology across the curriculum. (Abdal Haqq, 1995) Instruction that is provided to pre-service teachers tends to focus more on computer assisted instruction and word processing and less on exposure to and practice with electronic networks, integrated media and problem-solving applications. (Abdal Haqq, 1995) Obstacles to including more technology in teacher education programs include limited availability of equipment; lack of faculty training; no clear expectation that faculty will incorporate technology in academic activities; lack of funds; lack of time to develop a class in using equipment and software; doubts about the validity of using some of the newer technologies for instruction; lack of technical support; lack of appropriate materials, particularly integrated media materials suitable for teacher education instruction; and an absence of clear programmatic goals for the teacher education program as a whole. (Abdal Haqq, 1995) Another reason that teachers are unprepared to deal with the technology is that there has not been time to train them. (Healy, 1998) Most teachers are already overwhelmed by their regular duties. (Healy, 1998) They do not have time to be trained on how to prepare a first-rate instructional program for a whole new medium. (Healy, 1998)
Another way that teachers become a deterrent to computer integration is their fear. Most teachers fear the day that their students know more about computers than they do. (Papert, 1993) Teachers fear that they will lose control if their students learn that they do not have all answers. (Papert, 1993) Teachers should not fear this however. They should welcome the opportunity of having students take on the role of teachers or the opportunity to learn at the same time as their students. Teachers and students learning together can be a rewarding experience. (Papert, 1993) Learning in use also allows students to learn in their own way. (Papert, 1993) Educators also fear that they are being replaced by technology experts. (Healy, 1998) They think that people who are experts in technology but who know nothing about education are starting to run the show. (Healy, 1998) They are worried that education is becoming some sort of training school for the high tech world. (Healy, 1998)
Another deterrent to computer integration in elementary schools is school policy. Schools with their fixed curriculum, standardized tests, and other materials tend to reduce learning to a series of technical acts and the teacher to a technician. (Papert, 1993)) In the early 1980's when there were few computers in school, the teachers who had them would use them across the curriculum. (Papert, 1993) But when the number of computers increased the school, administration stepped in and put the computers all together in one room under the control of a computer teacher and gave computers their own curriculum. (Papert, 1993) Schools saw computers as an instrument of change and were threatened. (Papert, 1993) They neutralized its effectiveness by assimilating it in to the existing school structure instead of adapting their school structure so the computers could be used effectively. (Papert, 1993) Schools are set up as a hierarchy. (Papert, 1993) The students are supervised by the teachers. (Papert, 1993) The teachers are supervised by curriculum coordinators and department heads, they are supervised by principals and everyone is supervised by the superintendent. (Papert, 1993) "Under this hierarchical system the teacher is in control and decides how the skill will be taught; the learner simply has to obey the instructions." (Papert, 1993) Computers are a threat to this system because they allow children to be autonomous. (Papert, 1993) They offer children an alternative way to learn which challenges current methods of instruction. (Papert, 1993) Computers challenge the fixed curriculum. (Papert, 1993) Computers also alter what we teach and how we teach it. (Papert, 1993) Teachers, schools, and the technology itself can all be deterrents to computer integration. In the following sections I will discuss how to overcome some of the deterrents to computer integration.
To begin integrating computers into the elementary classroom we need to overcome the problems created by student-computer ratios. One way to overcome the problem of having only one computer in the classroom is to connect a television or computer projection system to the computer. (Learning Solutions, 1998) This set-up will help make use of the computer as a presentation device and will eliminate the problem of having the entire class huddle around the computer trying to see the teacher demonstrate an activity. (Learning Solutions, 1998) A computer projection system will also be useful for whole class writing activities. (TRC, 2002) Another way of overcoming the problem of having only one computer in the classroom is cooperative groups. (Learning Solutions, 1998) If a rotation schedule is posted next to the computer, each group will have an assigned time during the day. (Learning Solutions, 1998) "In a typical day, five or six twenty-minute sessions can be accommodated in this way." (Learning Solutions, 1998) When using small groups each person should be assigned a role to complete and they should evaluate their contribution each day. (TRC, 2002) The following roles could be used: Researcher - locates information and helpful resources; Organizer - uses the organizational chart to determine a logical sequence for informative details; Grammarian - Checks for proper mechanics; Computer Engineer - Uses the keyboard and selects proper font. spacing, bullets, etc.; and Composer - Checks for transitions and sentence variety. (TRC, 2002) In a classroom that employs learning centers the computer could be used as a research station, data collection station or publication center. (Learning Solutions, 1998)The classroom computer can also be a blackboard where teachers post daily announcements, quizzes, grade sheets, and student presentations. (Tan, 1998) It can be used to interface with other technologies. (Tan, 1998) It can act as a secretary helping teachers create handouts, worksheets, puzzles, report cards, and letters home as well as help record attendance. It can also become a message board where teachers post messages and topic stimulators. (Tan, 1998) Student-Computer ratio is not the only concern that needs to be looked at when trying to integrate computers into the elementary classroom. Many other concerns also exist, one being Internet security and safety.
The Internet can be a safe place if children are not on by themselves. (Kehoe et al, 1997) Parents and teachers must choose what they want children to see, read, or hear. It is best if the child is using the Internet actively with the child. In a class with 15 to 20 students, this is impossible for a teacher to do, so an extra safety net may be needed. (Kehoe et al, 1997) Types of protective software are available that can be used to protect the students. (Kehoe et al, 1997) These software can track the time used for a specific application, be configured to only allow the use of specific programs, and block selected sites and resources. (Kehoe et al, 1997) Types of software can also keep track of the child's travels while using the Internet. (Kehoe et al, 1997) Children also need to be given guidelines on using the Internet. "Most schools require that a student and a student's parent or guardian sign the schools Acceptable Use Policy (AUP) in order to allow access to the school's online resources." (Kehoe et al, 1997) An AUP is intended to protect the student and the school from problems that can occur during use of the Internet. (Kehoe et al, 1997) It is advisable that you make sure the students understand all the rules and regulations involved in the AUP. The following are recommended guidelines for Internet use.
1. Do not give out any personal information about yourself or anyone else.
2. Make sure what you publish contains no names, photos, or personal information.
3. No chat room visits.
4. Observe time limits. (Healy, 1998)
A recommended time limit for Internet usage is twenty minutes. This should be enough time for students to collect the information they need and prevent wandering. (Healy, 1998) Teachers can also protect students by previewing sites and selecting those relevant to the assignment and by teaching them good research strategies. (Healy, 1998) Children should also be taught that being careful when you talk to strangers is important to remember when they are outside and when they are on the Internet. (Healy, 1998) Teachers and parents need to show students how to critically analyze information that they find on the World Wide Web. (Healy, 1998) They can help students do this by giving them the names of reputable sites when they are doing research. Teachers and parents can also teach students about the types of sites that are most likely to have accurate information like sites for educational and governmental institutions as well as sites for educational networks like PBS or the Discovery Channel.
Besides protecting the children, schools need to protect their computer systems. They can do this by avoiding high risk sources. (University of Regina, 2002) "Viruses and other dangerous programs are most often found on public domain software or from pirated copies of commercial software placed on electronic bulletin boards." (University of Regina, 2002) Schools should also use a virus detection program. If a virus is detected, schools should try to prevent its spread by notifying the network administrator, using the disinfectant function of the virus program to try and restore the infected program to its original state or erasing the program and reinstalling it from original disks after the system has been cleared of viruses. (University of Regina, 2002) Virus detection programs not only detect viruses that may be in your system, they can also scan email messages for viruses to make sure your system does not get infected through an email. Virus detection programs can be very helpful and should be used by schools but they are not the only software programs that should be used by schools. Schools should also use educational software programs and with these programs come more concerns that need to be overcome.
As mentioned prior in this paper many feel that computers are not meeting educational standards and students are not learning much from educational software. I will begin to address the concern about accountability by stating that each area of the education system is accountable for different things. The state and the district central office must each be accountable for the policies they adopt. (Darling-Hammond et al, 1989) They must assume responsibility for equity in the distribution of school resources, and for creating processes that keep them responsive to the needs and concerns of parents, students, and school-level staff. (Darling-Hammond et al, 1989) The school must be accountable for adopting policies that reflect professional knowledge and the interests of children. (Darling-Hammond et al, 1989) Schools need to hire and support competent and committed staff. They need to provide opportunities for faculty to meet with each other and with parents to evaluate and discuss their teaching and students' progress. (Darling-Hammond et al, 1989) Teachers and other staff must be accountable for identifying and meeting the needs of individual students responsibly and knowledgeably based on professional standards of practice, for evaluating how well their practices are accomplishing this goal, for seeking new knowledge and information, and continually revising their strategies to better meet the needs of students. (Darling-Hammond et al, 1989) In assessing student performance students need to use more than just standardized tests. (Darling-Hammond et al, 1989) Student demonstrations, portfolio assessment, student products and digital portfolios can all be used to assess student learning and show parents and other adults that educational outcomes are being met. (NSBA, 2002) To make sure students needs are being met teachers need to make sure that students understand what they are doing with the computer or what is being done by the computer and can explain the process or format they have used for projects. (Healy, 1998) Teachers should also make sure they can reflect upon what they have learned. (Healy, 1998) When using the computer in the classroom teachers should fit the activity to the students' level of maturation and cognitive development. (Healy, 1998) Teachers should also fit the activity to students' interests and experiences. (Healy, 1998)
To address the concerns about educational software, teachers should select the best software for each of the different types of software. Current uses of computers can be divided into four software categories: applications software to accomplish routine tasks more efficiently; programs for teaching basic skills; communication software; and laser disc or computer simulations designed to foster content knowledge, thinking, or problem solving. (Healy, 1998) "Applications are the closest thing we have to using the computer as a tool." (Healy, 1998) "They can support highly structured drill and practice activities or more active learning." (Healy, 1998) Examples of application software include word processing, database, spreadsheets, classroom and school management aids, CD-ROM encyclopedias, and multimedia authoring tools. (Healy, 1998) Programs that teach basic skills include drill and practice programs, integrated learning systems, and cognitive tutors. (Healy, 1998) Communication software includes software that connects us to the Internet or World Wide Web and distance learning software. (Healy, 1998) In order to use computers effectively and to make sure children are actually learning something teachers need to choose appropriate software. When choosing software teachers first need to determine what they wish to accomplish. (Healy, 1998) They should make sure they consider their students age and abilities when doing this. (Healy, 1998) Teachers should try to preview the software before they purchase to determine if it is appropriate for the classroom, does not contain stereotypical images and is equitable to all genders and races. (Healy, 1998) If teachers are unable to preview the software they should read software reviews from reputable journals. (Healy, 1998) The software teachers choose should have varying levels of difficulty and easy to understand directions. (Healy, 1998) Teachers should avoid software where students are just clicking on icons or are rewarded with games. (Healy, 1998) The software should be more than just skill and drill, it should allow students to be creative and it should allow the teacher to create activities that allow students to move beyond the computer. (Healy, 1998) The best educational software programs extend problem solving skills. (Healy, 1998) Good software programs intersperse quick drills with conceptual learning. (Healy, 1998) They coach the child on why an answer was incorrect rather than just telling him the correct answer. (Healy, 1998) They also give the child the pleasure at succeeding at a task rather than rewarding them with games or silliness. (Healy, 1998)
Good software must also be used so that children are gaining knowledge other than how to move the character on the screen and accomplishing tasks other than just clicking the mouse. (Healy, 1998) If all the child is doing is clicking the mouse than money is being wasted (Healy, 1998) To ensure learning takes place during software use teachers or parents should accompany the child while he or she is exploring the software and talk to them about what is going on in the program. (Healy, 1998) Teachers and parents should also make sure that the child is not just clicking the mouse impulsively. (Healy, 1998) If the child is doing this, then the mouse should be removed and the child should be taught to explain why he is going to perform a task during a program before he does it. (Healy, 1998) Children should also be taught to plan out their actions before they use the computer. (Healy, 1998) If the child is using the computer to draw or write a story, they should have a story or picture idea in their head and be able to describe it to a parent or teacher. (Healy, 1998)
Besides addressing the concerns about software and educational standards, schools need to address the concerns about the physical and mental effects of computers. To keep students eyes healthy schools need to eliminate sources of light and glare. (Healy, 1998) They should also use desk lamps whenever possible and try not to use computers in rooms with fluorescent lamps. (Healy, 1998) Teachers also need to have children take eye breaks. (Healy, 1998) "Students should take fifteen minutes off for every hour of computer use." (Healy, 1998) Teachers should also remind children to blink. (Healy, 1998) Computer users tend look at the screen to long without blinking. (Healy, 1998) Postural and skeletal problems can be prevented by encouraging students to use good posture when working at the computer. (Healy, 1998) "Workstations should also be adjustable for different sized children." (Healy, 1998) A posture cushion to support the lower back could help too. (Healy, 1998) Obesity in children can be countered by giving students time for physical exercise especially time for outdoor exercise. (Healy, 1998) Physical activity produces overall physical, psychological and social benefits. Physical activity helps with weight control, reducing blood pressure, raising HDL ("good") cholesterol, reducing the risk of diabetes and some kinds of cancer.(AHA, 2002) The American Heart Association recommends that all children age 5 and older should participate in at least 30 minutes of enjoyable, moderate-intensity activities every day. (AHA, 2002) They should also perform at least 30 minutes of vigorous physical activities at least 3-4 days each week to achieve and maintain a good level of cardio respiratory (heart and lung) fitness. (AHA, 2002) "Physical activity is vital for health, good sleep patterns, dissipation of excess energy, and socialization." (Healy, 1998)
To make sure that computers are used to benefit children cognitively. Teachers can avoid selecting software that is filled with blinking or flashing lights and a lot of noise going on which hinder the development in attention span and give them the impression that learning is supposed to entertain them. (Healy, 1998) Teachers can use computers to boost motivation by letting the child be an active agent in the learning rather than a button pusher. (Healy, 1998) Teachers need to stay away from software programs that give rewards for completing tasks and choose ones that encourage creative thinking.(Healy, 1998) They should also give students corrective feedback and support the notion that learning itself is interesting and one does not need to be rewarded to do it. (Healy, 1998) Teachers can also improve motivation by insisting that children take responsibility for their actions. (Healy, 1998) It's important for teachers to hold the students accountable for all of their classroom behavior, whether they are using the computer or not. (Kehoe et al, 1997) Metacognition can be improved by using software that has a social agency environment, software that has an animated character that talks to the learner and interacts with the learner by having the student respond and then giving feedback to these responses. (Moreno et als, 2001) "The social agency environment includes an element of discovery, unlike the text-based environments." (Moreno et als, 2001) Discovery-based learning environments facilitate constructivist learning through creative problem solving experiences. "Constructivist learning is defined as meaningful learning in which a learner actively builds a mental model of the system they are to learn, as is best evaluated by problem solving transfer in which the learner must use what has been learned to solve challenging new problems." (Moreno et als, 2001) The constructivist view also has roots in theories of motivation. (Moreno et als, 2001) These programs aid constructivist learning by scaffolding the child's learning and guiding them through a problem solving experience. (Moreno et als, 2001) They also aid constructivist learning by getting students personally involved in the task. (Moreno et als, 2001). Animated characters help personalize the learning task and students feel a connection with these characters which promotes interest in the task which fosters constructivist learning. (Moreno et als, 2001) However, not all software with animated characters should be used in a classroom. (Moreno ET ALS, 2001) Some software programs with entertaining illustrations or auditory materials actually hurt students' retention and transfer of the core material. (Moreno et als, 2001) After schools have addressed the concerns of adults, they need to look at the concerns and problems found with in the school that can deter computer integration. One of these problems is the education of the educators.
Educating educators means preparing educators to use the technology and addressing their fears and concerns. Efforts are being made to better prepare teachers to use instructional technology. (Abdal Haqq, 1995) While there is room for improvement in technology utilization schools, colleges, and departments of education are moving forward and in some cases, leading the way. (Beck et al, 1998) "New unit standards (effective fall 1995) developed by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education include guidelines that address content and pedagogical studies for initial teacher preparation, faculty qualifications, resources for teaching." (Abdal Haqq) "Examples from the second category can be found in the recent Office of Technology Assessment (1995a) report, Teachers & Technology: Making the Connection. (Abdal Haqq, 1995) "Programs where technology support has become an integral part of a revised teacher education program are characterized by a required course for pre-service teachers, which teach them how to use instructional technologies and exposure to technology-rich K-12 classrooms."(Abdal Haqq, 1995) "At 40% of these programs students are required during the on-campus part of their program to design and deliver instruction incorporating various technologies." (Beck et al, 1998) "Students at another 50% of these programs are required to demonstrate the use of at least one technology during their on-campus classes." (Beck et al, 1998) "At 28% of these programs students are required to design and deliver instruction that incorporates various technologies during the student teaching experience." (Beck et al, 1998) Almost all institutions provide students accessibility to basic word processing, spreadsheet, and presentation programs. (Beck et al, 1998) "Students at 57% of these institutions have access to advanced electronic technologies." (Beck et al, 1998) Trends for using technology in on-campus classes are positive but the use of technology does drop off during student teaching. (Beck et al, 1998) Schools of education have been encouraged to continue to identify and implement technology-rich instructional strategies within required preparation course work. (Beck et al, 1998)
Faculty use of technology has also improved. "Faculty members at 45% of the schools, colleges, or departments of education responded that they regularly use computers, televisions, and VCRs as interactive instructional tools during class periods." (Beck et al, 1998) "Faculty members at another 53% of these institutions occasionally use some technology to present information during class periods." (Beck et al, 1998) "In addition, 81% of schools, colleges, or departments of education require students to use computer applications to complete assignments." (Beck et al, 1998) Current unit standards reflect recommendations from the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE). (Beck et al, 1998) New standards for bringing technology into teacher education programs and a vision for what skills and understandings graduating students should bring into the classroom will be part of the revisions. (Beck et al, 1998) As states require more capability with technology through licensing and certification standards, schools of education will alter programs to produce new teachers able to meet those requirements. (Beck et al, 1998)
Teachers who are already in the classroom should also receive training. "Teachers who are already in the classroom may be at five different stages of technology integration (novice, apprentice, instructor, coach, and expert)." (TLTI, 1999) After the teacher's skill level is identified administrators, teachers, and the educational technologist can determine what support and resources are needed to move on to the next stage. (TLTI, 1999) "Individual tutoring, peer coaching, collaboration, networking, and mentoring have been used successfully over extended periods to help teachers at all levels of technology implementation develop technology applications that promote engaged learning." (TLTI, 1999) Teachers should also have the opportunity to participate in the type of workshops, seminars, and online professional communities that will help them use technology effectively. (TLTI, 1999) Time for independent study, experimentation, and curriculum development also is important. (TLTI, 1999) Technical support is also a must. (Healy, 1998) "Teachers cannot be expected to teach and to repair machines." (Healy, 1998)
Teachers' fears of technology need to be respected and listened to before trying to solve them. Teachers could be voicing real concerns that haven't occurred to most technology people. (Kehoe et al, 1997) Patience and willingness to listen will make relations between supporters of technology and those opposed easier. (Kehoe et al, 1997) All though not all of their concerns can be solved, their fear of losing control can. Teachers' fears of losing control can be addressed by assuring them that they are not.
Even though there are computers in the classrooms teachers still have to maintain control. Teachers still have to make rules and enforce them. (Kehoe et al, 1997) They have to teach students to accept responsibility for their behavior and hold them accountable for their actions. (Kehoe et al, 1997) Teachers are not the only deterrent to computer integration found in schools, sometimes schools themselves are a deterrent to computer integration.
To first deal with these problems we have to acknowledge that "successful integration of classroom technology implies changes of huge magnitude in educational philosophy, classroom management, and curricular goals." (Healy, 1998) For the technologies to be used successfully teachers must be used to a project-based, problem-solving approach to learning. (Healy, 1998) They must also be willing to tolerate students progressing independently and at varying paces. (Healy, 1998) Teachers need to understand that the students may know more than they do and they should allow the students to take on the role of the teachers. (Healy, 1998) Another way schools can address these problems is to support innovators. (Healy, 1998) Teachers, principals, or superintendents who understand the potential of technology can help develop effective uses for it as well as gain resources by grant-writing or other means. (Healy, 1998) Once teachers have gotten rid of some of the deterrents to computer integration, they can begin to integrate computers into the classroom. In the next section I will look at the ways computers can be integrated into the classroom.
In English, the computer can be integrated into the curriculum during the study of mass media. (Cobine, 1997) Students can read electronic newspapers and magazines and take news quizzes with immediate answers. (Cobine, 1997) They can also use the computer to write about political, social, and economic events. (Cobine, 1997) The computer also can strengthen writing. (Cobine, 1997) In expository writing, students who need reference sources to support their writing can extend their research through online encyclopedias, periodicals, and libraries. (Cobine, 1997) In creative writing, students can extend their collaborations through e-mail; they can correspond with authors and illustrators, as well as experts on themes important to their writing. (Cobine, 1997) In writing courses, the students could learn to use a word processor, by typing proofreading, saving, and printing a previously written paper. (Cobine, 1997) They could then move on to writing-in-progress on the word processor. Also, in writing students can use a computer's word processor to make instantaneous on-screen changes. (Cobine, 1997) The instructor is also able to act like an editor than since the large computer screen makes the writing legible to both. (Cobine, 1997) Instructors can integrate the computer into a course gradually. (Cobine, 1997) Students can began using the computer for min-research assignments and then use it later on to do a research project. (Cobine, 1997) (Cobine, 1997) These examples are just a few ways computers can be integrated into the classroom.
As I mentioned prior in my report computer integration is a hot topic. Computers challenge some of our most deeply held beliefs on about how children should be raised and educated. The common ground between those who are for computers in the classroom and those who are against it is the welfare of children. (Kehoe et al, 1997) Those of us who support have computers in classrooms want to stretch the limits of education, put the power of learning into the students hands and create a global village where different cultures can come together. (Kehoe et al, 1997) We hope that by establishing contact between our students and students of other cultures that we will be able to find world peace. (Kehoe et al, 1997) Those against have computers in the classrooms believe that stretching the limits can be accomplished without computers in a variety of ways. (Kehoe et al, 1997) Whether we have computers in classrooms or not, we all need to understand that there is no easy fix to the problems with education. Getting our school systems to meet the demands of the global economy will not happen over night. It will take a lot of work from the administrators, teachers, parents, and children.

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2. AHA. (2002). Exercise (Physical Activity) and Children. American Heart Association. http://216.185.112.5/presenter.jhtml?identifier=4596

3. Allen, Jeanne. (1994). A Primer on School Accountability. Center for Education Reform. http://edreform.com/pubs/account1.htm

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6. Blakey, Elaine; Spence, Sheila. (1990). "Developing Metacognition." ERIC Digest. ERIC Clearinghouse on Information Resources. ED327218

7. Bristow, Duane. (1997). Computer Literacy, Computer Skills, and Computer Use in Schools and Small Businesses. http://www.webcom.com/duane/compeff.html

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9. CSULB. (1996) History, the History of Computers, and the History of Computers in Education California State University, Long Beach. http://www.csulb.edu/~murdock/histofcs.html

10. Darling-Hammond, Linda; Ascher, Carol. (1989). Creating Accountability in Big City Schools. ERIC Clearinghouse of Urban Education

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KIDLINK
http://www.kidlink.org
KIDLINK is an international online organization for children grades Kindergarten-12th. It offers KIDCAFE an online forum for children 10-15 in six languages around the world. KIDLINK also offers mailing lists for educators and parents and runs adult coordinator conferences.

Consortium for School Networking (CoSN)
http://www.cosn.org
CoSN gives educators up-to-date information on how to get quick, easy, and cost effective access to the Internet and online resources. It also serves as a discussion list and sounding board for teachers, school administrators, librarians, and other professionals involved in school networking.

Ask ERIC
http://ericir.syr.edu
Ask Eric is an online question and answer service based on the Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) database at Syracuse University. It also maintains a Virtual library and a Research & Development Department. ERIC is a database of sixteen subject-specific clearinghouses.

Classroom Connect
http://www.classroom.net
Classroom Connect is a hardcopy newsletter aimed at the K-12 online educator. It is an easy way for educators and parents to gain information about using technology in K-12 education. Classroom Connect also offers a list serve for teachers and administrators to post questions and exchange information.

Cisco Educational Archive and Resources Catalog Homepage (CEARCH)
http://sunsite.unc.edu/cisco/index.html
CEARCH contains the Virtual Schoolhouse, a meta-library of K-12 links, an excellent research tool for K-12 educators and parents. The Virtual Schoolhouse is divided into nine areas. "Classrooms" has educational links sorted by subject, while "The Library" has links to libraries and other sites where books can be found, and "The Art Room" has links to museums and art exhibits. Games and entertainment can be found at "The Playground." Teaching resources can be found in the "Teachers Lounge" and administrative resources can be found in "The Principal's Office."

U.S. Department of Education
http://www.ed.gov
This site offers resources for teachers, administrators, and other people involved in education.

International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE)
http://www.iste.org/
This site offers teachers resources for using technology in the classroom

Edumatch
http://www.edumatch.com
This site offers educators free use of a search engine that allows them to match state standards with over 4,000 educational software titles from most of the educational software publishers in the United States.

Landmark Project
http://landmarks4schools.org/
This site offers resources for assisting with the integration of curriculum and technology. It also provides web tools for teachers including rubrics and a template for seeking permission to use copyrighted materials for classroom use.

PBS Teachersource
http://www.pbs.org/teachersource/
This site offers over 1,400 pre-K through grade 12 lesson plans and activities for curricular areas that include: Arts & Literature, Health & Fitness, Math, Science & Technology, and Social Studies. Access to program segments such as Nova, Frontline, The American Experience and Sesame Street is also available.

WWW4Teachers
http://www.4teachers.org
This site is for teachers who are integrating technology into the curriculum. It offers materials on internet safety, state standards, and technology assessment. It also offers teacher tools like on-line note takers, quiz makers, and rubric makers as well as professional development information.

NobleED News
http://nobleednews.com
This site has material for parents, teachers, and students. Materials for teachers include teaching strategies, state standards, lesson plans, and student assessment materials. Parent material includes family activities, parenting advice, and homework help. Student material is divided into the areas of elementary, middle school, and high school and it has materials appropriate for all three age groups.

Ditto.com
http://www.ditto.com
This site is a visual search engine that allows you to visually search for pictures, information and products. You can search for pictures, images, photos, information, products, clipart, fine art, etc.

MyGradebook.Com
http://mygradebook.com
This site allows teachers to create an online grade book and keep track of grades on the Internet. It also allows parents and children to view grading and attendance summaries with a password.

MARCO POLO
http://www.wcom.com/marcopolo
Marco Polo provides standards based internet content. Its resources include panel-reviewed links to top sites in many disciplines, professionally developed lesson plans, classroom activities, materials to help with daily classroom planning, and powerful search engines.

The Field Trips Site
http://www.field-trips.org/
Field Trips have virtual tours on nature topics as well as other topics. Teacher's resources are included.

NEA
http://www.nea.org
This is the National Education Association website. It includes resources for parents and educators, information on student achievement, as well as articles about current issues in education.

Copernicus Education Gateway
http://www.edgate.com
This is a site for teachers, parents, and students. It allows teachers to create notes for homework and class information and post them on the web for parents and students to access. It also offers search tools, activities for students, and information on parenting issues.

Buddy System Project
http://www.buddyproject.org
This site is designed for teachers, students, and parents. It offers sites that are appropriate for each of these three groups. It also offers activities for students, lessons that connect technology with classroom curriculum, articles about using technology in the home as well as guidelines on how to help students develop their searching strategies.

MagPortal.com
http://www.magportal.com
This is a search site that allows you to search for free magazine articles on a variety of topics.

Blue Web'N
http://www.kn.pacbell.com
Blue Web'n is an online library of 1200+ outstanding Internet sites categorized by subject, grade level, and format (lessons, activities, projects, resources, references, & tools).

An Educator's Guide to Evaluating the Use of Technology in Schools and
Classrooms
http://www.ed.gov/pubs/EdTechGuide/
This site provides a handbook, complete with forms and sample surveys, for the evaluation of your program.

Typing Master Typing Test
This is free keyboarding software. It offers typing games to help practice typing skills, test texts to evaluate typing skills, personal test result history and print out test diplomas.

GIMP
GIMP is an acronym for GNU Image Manipulation Program. It is free software that can be used as a paint program, an expert quality photo retouching program, an online batch processing system, a mass production image renderer, and an image format converter.

KidPix Studio
This is multimedia software with video, special effects and photos. Kids can create slide show productions, QuickTime movies, and illustrate with over 1,300 animated stamps.

Microsoft Bookshelf 98
This is an all-purpose reference set. It includes a dictionary, thesaurus, almanac, chronology, and computer dictionary.

Inspiration
This is software that helps students develop ideas and organize thinking. It is ideal for use in language arts, science, social studies and research. It assists students in brainstorming, planning, organizing, outlining, prewriting, diagramming, concept mapping, and webbing.

PowerPoint
This is a presentation graphics program. It allows you to create presentations and post them on the web.

Classbuilder
This is classroom management software. It allows teachers to create exams and lesson plans. It also allows teachers to keep track of grades and attendance.

Report Cards Plus
This software allows schools to produce report cards and transcripts. It also allows schools to generate honor roll, class rank, grade search, and grade distribution reports.

EndNote
This is academic software that allows teachers and students to search online bibliographic databases, organize their references, and create bibliographies instantly and automatically.

Norton Antivirus
This is virus protection software. It detects script-based threats, scans and cleans outgoing e-mail messages to prevent sending infected files from your PC. Automatic Live Update checks for and installs new virus definitions when you're connected to the Internet to keep your system updated against the latest viruses